For centuries, theological discussions and critical debates have touched upon the complex historical relationship between Islam’s foundational text, the Quran, and the scriptures that preceded it. Among critics, a common allegation often arises that the Quran is merely a derivative work of the Bible—that Prophet Muhammad simply plagiarized his text from the pages of the Old and New Testaments.
It is an established historical fact that Prophet Muhammad received the revelations of the Quran after the biblical texts had already come into existence. Furthermore, observers from various religious traditions frequently note that the books of the Bible and the Quran cover substantial common ground, sharing numerous historical figures, narratives, and ethical themes. However, the conclusion drawn by some critics that the Prophet actively studied the Bible with the deliberate intention of copying its verses to fabricate the Quran is considered by scholars to be untenable and historically absurd for several profound reasons.
The Linguistic Barrier and the Absence of an Early Arabic Bible
The first major obstacle to the plagiarism theory lies in the linguistic and historical reality of seventh-century Arabia. During the lifetime of Prophet Muhammad, there was simply no Arabic translation of the Bible available to the general populace or to religious scholars in the Arabian Peninsula.
This historical reality is corroborated by prominent textual scholars, including Ernst Würthwein. In his authoritative work, The Text of the Old Testament, Würthwein addresses the later emergence of Arabic biblical texts, explaining that the widespread use of the Arabic language followed the expansion of Islamic governance across the region.
As Würthwein notes, with the victory of Islam, the use of Arabic spread widely, and for Jews and Christians living in the newly conquered lands, it gradually became the language of daily life. This sociological shift inevitably gave rise to a practical need for Arabic versions of the Bible. Consequently, this need was met by a number of distinct versions, which were largely independent of one another and primarily concerned with local interpretation.
Historical evidence demonstrates that the earliest translations of the Hebrew Bible into Arabic only appeared after the advent of Islam. In fact, manuscript evidence shows that the oldest dated manuscript of the Old Testament in Arabic dates no earlier than the first half of the ninth century.
The situation regarding the New Testament mirrors that of the Hebrew Bible. Scholars who have dedicated their careers to tracing the development of Arabic Christian literature emphasize the late appearance of translated Gospel texts. Sidney H. Griffith, a leading researcher who has done extensive academic work on the appearance of the Arabic language alongside early Christian scriptures, provides critical insight into this timeline.
According to Griffith, the oldest dated manuscript containing the Gospels in Arabic is Sinai Arabic MS 72. Within this historical document, the text of the four canonical Gospels is marked off according to the lessons of the temporal cycle of the Greek liturgical calendar observed by the Jerusalem Church. A colophon contained within the manuscript informs modern researchers that the text was copied and written by a scribe named Stephen of Ramleh in the year 284 of the Arab calendar, which corresponds precisely to the year 897 CE.
When juxtaposed with the timeline of early Islamic history, these dates present a definitive chronological barrier to the plagiarism hypothesis. Prophet Muhammad passed away during the first half of the seventh century, specifically in the year 632 CE. Because the earliest Arabic translations of both the Old and New Testaments did not emerge until well over two centuries after his death, it would have been a chronological impossibility for the Prophet to have read, studied, or copied from an Arabic Bible during his lifetime.
The Reality of the Unlettered Prophet
Beyond the linguistic and chronological barriers, the allegation of plagiarism faces another fundamental contradiction rooted in the widely acknowledged personal background of Prophet Muhammad. Historical and biographical records establish that he was an unlettered individual, a fact recognized not only by his followers but also by his contemporaries and fiercest opponents in Makkah 1,400 years ago.
The proposition that an unlettered individual living in seventh-century Arabia could have independently studied, synthesized, and thoroughly assimilated a vast array of complex theological sources—ranging from Christian and Jewish traditions to Zoroastrian, Hanif, and ancient Arabian belief systems—before compiling the cohesive text of the Quran defies historical plausibility. Furthermore, historical records contain no accounts of the pagan Arabs in Makkah ever accusing Muhammad of feigning illiteracy while secretly possessing advanced reading and writing capabilities. Had such a contradiction existed among a population intimately familiar with his daily life, his detractors would have undoubtedly seized upon it.
Islamic theology addresses this historical reality directly within the text of the Quran itself, appealing to the verifiable life of the Prophet as a sign of divine authorship. In Surah Al-Ankabut, the Quran addresses these very questions, pointing out the impossibility of the Prophet having authored or transcribed a scripture prior to receiving the revelation:
"And thou wast not [able] to recite a Book before this [Book came] nor art thou [able] to transcribe it with thy right hand: in that case indeed would the talkers of vanities have doubted. Nay here are signs self-evident in the hearts of those endowed with knowledge: and none but the unjust reject Our signs." (Al-`Ankabut 29:48–49)
As scholarly research into ancient manuscripts and historical chronologies continues to develop, academic evaluations of the Quranic text emphasize these structural and historical contexts, distinguishing between shared monotheistic traditions and theories of direct literary derivation.